Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

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Home 4 Case Morphology 9 Syntax
Introduction 5 Verb Morphology 10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology 6 More Verb Morphology 11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology 7 Suffixes 12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology 8 Adjuncts The Lexicon
     


Chapter 3: Basic Morphology

    3.1 Configuration   3.5 Context    
    3.2 Affiliation   3.6 Designation    
    3.3 Perspective   3.7 Essence    
    3.4 Extension   3.8 Note On Morpho-Phonological Agreement    

 

As previously discussed in Section 2.6.1, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages is rather blurred in Ilaksh. All lexical stems in Ilasksh function equally as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. This is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as verbs when discussing their morphology.

All Ilaksh formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, inflect for nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, six Extensions, four Contexts, two Designations, and two Essences, and can take any of more than 1300 optional affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which follow.

 

3.1 CONFIGURATION

To understand the Ilaksh concept of enumeration and quantification of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as in Ilaksh. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section 3.3.

Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain English sets of words.

Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray such as a ‘jungle.’

As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify these principles.

Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

In Ilaksh, the semantic distinctions implied by the above examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ via Configuration, the Ilaksh words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in detail in Chapter 7: Suffixes.)

Ilaksh words indicate Configuration via a synthetic consonantal affix immediately following the C+V stem which also indicates the Affiliation, Perspective and Extension of the Stem. This is the Ca affix discussed in Section 2.1.1.

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below, following the explanation of Extension.

The nine configurations are the UNIPLEX, DUPLEX, DISCRETE, AGGREGATIVE, SEGMENTATIVE, COMPONENTIAL, COHERENT, COMPOSITE, and MULTIFORM. The function and morphology of these categories are explained below along with examples of the various configurations applied to four different stems: pa-, akà-, alá-, and xrî-.


3.1.1
UNI
The Uniplex

The UNIPLEX configuration indicates a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a grape, a hammer blow, a hole. With verbs the UNIPLEX signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., to be a tree, to become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with a hammer, to dig a hole. Listen to the following examples audio :

pal
‘a tree’
akàl
‘a person’
alál
‘an utterance; a spoken word’
xrîl
‘an occurrence; an instance of something’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.1.2
DPX
The Duplex

The DUPLEX configuration indicates a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the Ilaksh word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

One context in which the DUPLEX appears for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the DUPLEX in these contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action being divided by the impact. Listen to the following examples audio :

pall
‘a pair of trees’
akàll
‘a pair of persons; a couple’
aláll
‘a pair of uttered/spoken words’
xrîll
‘a pair of instances’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

 


3.1.3
DCT
The Discrete

The DISCRETE configuration indicates a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature can be either spatial, as in a flock of gulls (flying together), or temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in (a flock of) gulls flying one after another. Further examples of English nouns or noun phrases which would be translated using the DISCRETE are a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes. Thus, the Ilaksh word for (identical) set would simply be the word for thing or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, -V1šk, specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. 7.4.13.

For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this set can be either UNIPLEX, e.g., to take steps, to flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area, or DUPLEX in nature, e.g., to hammer, to spin, to breathe.

It should be noted that the Containment CNM affix, -Vomt, can be used with the DISCRETE, as well as most of the following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, bottle, pile, load, etc.) Examples:

pạr
‘a grove’
akàr
‘a group of matching people’
alár
‘a set of identical words’
xrîr
‘a set of similar circumstances/occurrences’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.1.4
AGG
The Aggregative

The AGGREGATE configuration functions like the DISCRETE above in referring to an associated group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated using the AGGREGATIVE are a forest (of different kinds of trees), a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series of musical notes. With verbs, the AGGREGATIVE implies a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating the sentence This morning I dug holes in my garden (i.e., of different sizes). Examples:

pạh
‘a forest; a wood’
akàh
‘a group of different people’
aláh
‘a set of (differing) words; a phrase’
xrîh
‘a set of differing cirucumstances/occurrences’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

 


3.1.5 SEG   The Segmentative

The SEGMENTATIVE configuration indicates a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples would be a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls (e.g., coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration and the DISCRETE above, we saw that the word grape in the DISCRETE would be translated as a serving of grapes, while in the SEGMENTATIVE it would mean a bunch of grapes (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine).

With verbs, the use of the SEGMENTATIVE versus the DISCRETE implies that the repetitive/iterative nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish The light is blinking from The light is flashing, where blink implies the way in which the source naturally emits light, while flash implies that the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light. Examples:

pạŧ
‘a stand (or line) of trees’
akàŧ
‘a line/wall of matching people’ (e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)
aláŧ
‘a string of words’
xrîŧ
‘a chain of similar events’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.1.6 CPN   The Componential

The COMPONENTIAL configuration operates identically to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated using the COMPONENTIAL are a freight train, a cascade of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes. With verbs, the COMPONENTIAL signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish The light twinkled from The light was blinking. Examples:

pạf
‘a line/stand of different trees’
akàf
‘a line/wall of different people’ (e.g., shoulder-to-shoulder or with arms linked)
aláf
‘a string of differing words’
xrîf
‘a chain of differing events’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.1.7 COH   The Coherent

The COHERENT configuration functions similarly to the SEGMENTATIVE above, except that the individual members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which would be translated using the COHERENT are a bookcase, a phalanx, a xylophone.

In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating the COHERENT is difficult. If one can imagine the verb to glow to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create a continuous emanation, then glow versus flash might suffice. Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between to buzz from to make a set of repeating noises. Listen to the following examples audio:

pạř
‘an entangled grove of trees’
(i.e., their roots/branches intertwined and grown together)
akàř
‘a mass/unit of similar people’
alář
‘a speech made up of similar words’
xrîř
‘a web of similar circumstances or events’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

 


3.1.8 CST   The Composite

The COMPOSITE configuration operates the same as the COHERENT above except that the individual members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the COMPOSITE are a building (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, etc.), a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket. Thus the Ilaksh words for recipe, skeleton, and melody would simply be the words for ingredient, bone, and musical note inflected for the COMPOSITE configuration. For verbs, the COMPOSITE versus COHERENT distinction would distinguish to rumble from to buzz, or to glitter from to glow. Examples:

pạks
‘a jungle’
akàks
‘a mass/unit of different people’
aláks
‘a speech’
xrîks
‘a complex situation’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.1.9 MLT   The Multiform

The MULTIFORM configuration is the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient overlap” between members of differing sets.

It is difficult to accurately translate into English without resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ilaksh easily expresses using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ilaksh word for ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member of the set can be expressed using the MULTIFORM. For examples, the Ilaksh word for library would simply be a word meaning something like work (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the MULTIFORM, signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the MULTIFORM would be a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.

With verbs, the MULTIFORM implies that the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as fluctuate, sputter or flicker capture this sense. Examples:

pạps
‘a thicket/jungle thicket’
akàps
‘rag-tag group of people’
aláps
‘incoherent speech/speak incoherently’
xrîps
‘chaos’

For the set of prefixes which mark this configuration, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.

 

3.2 AFFILIATION

While the category of Configuration from the preceding section distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into English.

Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in the DISCRETE configuration. The word grove implies that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle.

As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

There are four affiliations: CONSOLIDATIVE, ASSOCIATIVE, VARIATIVE, and COALESCENT. Affiliation is indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above and in Section 2.1.1.

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below. following the explanation of Extension. The details of the four affiliations are explained below.


3.2.1 CSL The Consolidative

The CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the ASSOCIATIVE affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of rocks, some people, the clouds.

The CONSOLIDATIVE is also the affiliation normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral as to purpose or design.

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.2.2
ASO
The Associative

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the Ilaksh word for soldier in the DISCRETE configuration and comparing its English translations when inflected for the CONSOLIDATIVE affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the ASSOCIATIVE (= a troop, a platoon). It is this CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction, then, that would distinguish otherwise equivalent DISCRETE inflections of the Ilaksh word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an orchard.

The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table 11 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.2.3
VAR
The Variative

The VARIATIVE affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the VARIATIVE would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set members (see the COALESCENT affiliation below). It would thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. With non-UNIPLEX configurations, the use of the VARIATIVE affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using the SEGMENTATIVE configuration such as The light is blinking in conjunction with the VARIATIVE would mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding or following blinks.

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below.


3.2.4
COA
The Coalescent

The COALESCENT affiliation indicates that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For example, the Ilaksh word translating English toolset would be the word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example would be the Ilaksh word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

The COALESCENT naturally appears most often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and right eye functioning together).

With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan.

For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table 11 in Section 3.4.7 below.

 

3.3. PERSPECTIVE

Perspective is the closest Ilaksh morphological category to the Number and Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations for nouns and verbs.

Perspective with Nouns. What Perspective means for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and Affiliation (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2 above) already contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” and “plural” have been avoided.

Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” categories of Western languages. In Ilaksh, the notion of linearly progressive time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Section 5.6).

There are four perspectives in Ilaksh: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. These are indicated as part of the Ca affix as explained in Sec. 3.1 above.

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]

The actual values of these Ca affixes are shown later in Table 7 in Section 3.4.7 below, following the explanation of Extension. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is explained below and illustrated using the three example formatives ùklo, àřořa, and vyúb.

 

3.3.1
M
The Monadic

The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically the “present” (which in Ilaksh might be better thought of as the “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ilaksh considers nouns as spatially reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

Thus, using the word tree for example, while there might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category is manifested. Using the AGGREGATIVE configuration as an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest.

At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective that Ilaksh makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ilaksh in that all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations of certain Ilaksh nouns must often be “contextual” rather than literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

With verbs, the MONADIC superficially corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed by the MONADIC means that the act, state, or event is temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:

By “accessible past” or “accessible future” is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

Listen to the following examples audio :

ùklol
‘a river;
a river flows’

àřořa
‘constellation;
a constellation shines (in the night sky) ’
vyúb
‘a set of benefits;
to be a set of benefits’

 

3.3.2
U
The Unbounded

The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’

For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

If necessary to specify whether the UNBOUNDED is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can be employed (see Sec. 5.6 on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the MONADIC, translation of the UNBOUNDED into Western languages is subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information which is not conveyed by the Ilaksh original.

Examples:

ùklot
‘what once was a river / a future river / a river-to-be;
the river once flowed (but no longer) / the river will flow (someday)’

àřonda
‘a past constellation / a future constellation;
the constellation shone (but no longer) / the constellation will shine (someday)’
vyúlk
‘a former set of benefits;
to have been a set of benefits (but no longer)’


3.3.3
N
The Nomic

The NOMIC refers to a generic collective entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, this category is mutually exclusive from the MONADIC or UNBOUNDED. For nouns, the NOMIC corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There is nothing like a tree.

With verbs, the NOMIC designates an action, event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

Examples:

ùklos
‘(flowing) river(s) (as a generic concept)’

àřoňsa
‘(shining) constelation(s) (as a generic concept)’
vyúlš
‘(being) a set of benefits as a generic concept’

 

3.3.4
A
The Abstract

Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes such as -hood or -ness, the ABSTRACT transforms a configurative category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via suffixes, all Ilaksh nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grovethe idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As a result, the ABSTRACT acts as a "timeless" verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. The ABSTRACT is often used in conjunction with certain modalities and moods of the verb (see Sec. 6.1 on Modality and Section 5.1 on Mood) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

Examples:

ùkloc
‘the river as an idea / everything about being a river / “river-hood” ’

àřosxa
‘the idea of a constellation / “constellation-hood” ’
vyúlč
‘the idea of having/providing benefits’

 

3.4 EXTENSION

Extension is another Ilaksh morphological category for which there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: DELIMITIVE, PROXIMAL, INCEPTIVE, TERMINATIVE, DEPLETIVE, and GRADUATIVE.

Extension is shown as part of the Ca affix which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective. The values of this affix are shown below in Sec. 3.4.7.

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]

The details of how each of the six extensions operates are explained as follows:

 

3.4.1
DEL
The Delimitive

The DELIMITIVE extension indicates that a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder in the DELIMITIVE to show it is being considered as a whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).

The DELIMITIVE can be thought of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

Examples:

ùklol ‘a river’

xrîks ‘a situation’

 

3.4.2
PRX
The Proximal

The PROXIMAL extension indicates that a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, the PROXIMAL does not refer to a specific or delineated piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

Examples:

ùklosk ‘a section/stretch of (the) river’

xrîřsk ‘the midst of a situation’

 

3.4.3
ICP
The Inceptive

The INCEPTIVE extension focuses on the closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). Examples:

uklòkka ‘the beginning of a river’

xrîkva ‘the beginning/start of a situation’

 

3.4.4
TRM
The Terminative

The TERMINATIVE extension focuses on the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s come off her diet.

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

Examples:

uklòpla ‘the end of a river’

xrîltla ‘the end of a situation’

 

3.4.5
DPL
The Depletive

The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. It would be used in translating the words water, strength, and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less these days.

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

Listen to the following examples audio :

uklòmla‘the mouth of a river’

xrîlnla ‘the last vestiges of a situation’

 

3.4.6
GRD
The Graduative

The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s been eating more and more lately.

The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

Examples:

uklòstra ‘the headwaters of a river’

xrîrstla ‘a gradually developing situation’

3.4.7 Affix Tables for Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Extension

Tables 7(a) through 7(f) below indicate all the affix values of Ca, the synthetic affix which indicates which of the nine Configurations, four Affiliations, four Perspectives, and six Extensions are applied to a particular stem.

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]

The Ca affix is attached directly following the stem vowel(s) Vr.


Tables 7(a)-(f):
Ca Configuration/Affiliation/Perspective/Extension Affixes for Formatives

EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
DEL
M

CSL
l
ll
r
h
ŧ
f
ř
ks
ps
ASO
m
mm
b
hh
v
vv
rr
bz
gz
VAR
n
nn
d
r n
ln
rm
řř
COA
ň
ňň
g
r ň
řl
rl
U
CSL
t
nt
lt
rt
ld
rd
nd
hk
řt
ASO
k
ňk
lk
rk
lg
rg
ňg
ht
řk
VAR
p
mp
lp
rp
lb
rb
mb
hp
řp
COA
ç
çç
ňç
řç
N
CSL
s
ss
ls
rs
ns
fs
ňs
hs
řs
ASO
š
šš
ňš
řš
VAR
z
zz
lz
rz
mz
ňz
zb
zd
zg
COA
ž
žž
ňž
žb
žd
žg
A
CSL
c
cc
lc
rc
ms
hc
sx
řz
řc
ASO
č
čč
šx
řž
řč
VAR
x
xx
lx
rx
xs
řň
řx
COA
đ
đđ
ŧŧ
lf
rf
ff


EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
PRX
M

CSL
sk
ssk
lsk
rsk
msk
nsk
ňsk
řsk
řkt
ASO
st
sst
lst
rst
mst
nst
ňst
řst
řft
VAR
sp
ssp
lsp
rsp
msp
nsp
ňsp
řsp
řpt
COA
ż
żż
nz
żb
żd
żg
řż
U
CSL
šk
ššk
lšk
ršk
mšk
nšk
ňšk
řšk
řg
ASO
št
ššt
lšt
ršt
mšt
nšt
ňšt
řšt
řd
VAR
šp
ššp
lšp
ršp
mšp
nšp
ňšp
řšp
řb
COA
j
jj
lj
rj
jg
jb
jd
řj
N
CSL
kf
lh
lkf
rkf
ňt
ňŧ
řf
ASO
tf
rh
ltf
rtf
mt
ţň
đň
řŧ
VAR
pf
lm
lpf
rpf
ňp
ňf
vz
řv
COA
xp
hw
lv
řy
nm
mx
fx
vx
řm
A
CSL
pt
sf
lpt
rpt
mf
ŧp
ŧs
ASO
ft
šf
lft
rft
ŧt
đz
řđ
VAR
kt
lkt
rkt
ňx
ŧk
xf
ňd
COA
xt
šŧ
px
tx
mn
ŧx
đx
řn


EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
ICP
M

CSL
kk
ky
lky
rky
ňky
kky
fk
kv
kp
ASO
tt
ty
lty
rty
nty
tty
vt
tv
tk
VAR
pp
py
lpy
rpy
mpy
ppy
fp
pv
pk
COA
pc
lpç
kc
fc
vc
lkç
sj
fj
xj
U
CSL
çk
kw
lkw
rkw
ňkw
kkw
ck
čk
kpw
ASO
çt
tw
ltw
rtw
ntw
ttw
ct
čt
tkw
VAR
çp
pw
lpw
rpw
mpw
ppw
cp
čp
pkw
COA
rpç
rkç
šj
pj
kj
N
CSL
gg
gw
lgw
rgw
ňgy
ggy
gv
gd
gb
ASO
dd
dw
ldw
rdw
ndy
ddy
dv
db
dg
VAR
bb
bw
lbw
rbw
mby
bby
bv
bd
bg
COA
my
mh
çm
cm
čm
lmy
rmy
jm
A
CSL
gy
hg
lgy
rgy
ňgw
ggw
tg
pg
vg
ASO
dy
hd
ldy
rdy
ndw
ddw
sc
kd
vd
VAR
by
hb
lby
rby
mbw
bbw
tp
kb
vb
COA
ny
nh
çn
cn
čn
lny
rny
čň
jn


EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
TRM
M

CSL
pl
tl
kl
rpl
rtl
rkl
lpl
ltl
lkl
ASO
pr
tr
kr
rpr
rtr
rkr
lpr
ltr
lkr
VAR
rpř
rtř
rkř
lpř
ltř
lkř
COA
sl
zl
rsl
rzl
rsř
lsl
lzl
lsř
U
CSL
bl
dl
gl
rbl
rdl
rgl
lbl
ldl
lgl
ASO
br
dr
gr
rbr
rdr
rgr
lbr
ldr
lgr
VAR
rbř
rdř
rgř
lbř
ldř
lgř
COA
šl
žl
šř
ršl
ržl
ršř
lšl
lžl
lšř
N
CSL
fl
fr
rfl
rfr
rfř
lfl
lfr
lfř
ASO
ţl
ţr
ţř
rţl
rţr
rţř
lţl
lţr
lţř
VAR
xl
xr
çl
rxl
rxr
çr
lxl
lxr
çř
COA
sr
zr
rsr
rzr
rzř
lsr
lzr
lzř
A
CSL
vl
vr
rvl
rvr
rvř
lvl
lvr
lvř
ASO
đl
đr
đř
rđl
rđr
rđř
lđl
lđr
lđř
VAR
hl
hr
çf
rhl
rhr
çv
lhl
lhr
COA
šr
žr
žř
ršr
ržr
ržř
lšr
lžr
lžř


EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
DPL
M

CSL
ml
nl
ňl
rml
rnl
rňl
lml
lnl
lňl
ASO
mr
nr
ňr
rmr
rnr
rňr
lmr
lnr
lňr
VAR
ňř
żm
żn
żň
bj
gj
vj
COA
mw
nw
ňw
rmw
rnw
rňw
lmw
lnw
lňw
U
CSL
sv
lsv
rsv
ksw
psw
lks
rks
lps
rps
ASO
zv
lzv
rzv
gzw
bzw
lgz
rgz
lbz
rbz
VAR
šv
lšv
ršv
kšw
pšw
lkš
rkš
lpš
rpš
COA
žv
lžv
ržv
gžw
bžw
lgž
rgž
lbž
rbž
N
CSL
sw
sy
ssw
cw
cy
lsw
rsw
lsy
rsy
ASO
zw
zy
ššw
żw
ży
lzw
rzw
lzy
rzy
VAR
šw
šy
zzw
čw
čy
lšw
ršw
lšy
ršy
COA
žw
žy
žžw
jw
jy
lžw
ržw
lžy
ržy
A
CSL
sm
sn
lsm
lsn
lsň
rsm
rsn
rsň
ASO
zm
zn
lzm
lzn
lzň
rzm
rzn
rzň
VAR
šm
šn
šň
lšm
lšn
lšň
ršm
ršn
ršň
COA
žm
žn
žň
lžm
lžn
lžň
ržm
ržn
ržň


EXTENSION
PERSPECTIVE
AFFILIATION
CONFIGURATION
UNI
DPX
DCT
AGG
SEG
CPN
COH
CST
MLT
GRA
M

CSL
str
stl
stw
lstr
lstl
lstw
rstr
rstl
rstw
ASO
skr
skl
skw
lskr
lskl
lskw
rskr
rskl
rskw
VAR
str
stl
spw
lstr
lstl
lspw
rstr
rstl
rspw
COA
cr
cl
żr
żl
żř
çc
xc
U
CSL
štr
štl
štw
lštr
lštl
lštw
rštr
rštl
rštw
ASO
škr
škl
škw
lškr
lškl
lškw
rškr
rškl
rškw
VAR
štr
štl
špw
lštr
lštl
lšpw
rštr
rštl
ršpw
COA
čr
čl
jr
jl
čř
çč
šč
N
CSL
fw
fy
lfw
rfw
lfy
rfy
bf
fm
fn
ASO
ţw
ţy
lţw
rţw
lţy
rţy
df
ţm
ţn
VAR
vw
vy
lvw
rvw
lvy
rvy
gf
vm
vn
COA
đw
đy
lđw
rđw
lđy
rđy
đm
đn
A
CSL
hm
hhw
rhw
tm
tn
dm
dn
mc
ňc
ASO
hn
çw
lhw
km
kn
gm
gn
ňč
VAR
xm
xw
xv
pm
pn
bm
bn
mj
ňj
COA
xn
řw
rv
mv
ňhw
ňm
ňn
hj
ňh

3.4.8 Additional Example of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension

kšŭl
‘clown’

axāl / xalā
‘running stride’

Ukšüŭb xafpā.
FML-clown’-IND-DEL/M/ASO/DCT     IFL-OPR-running stride’-ICP/M/VAR/COH
The group of clowns begin stumbling as they run.

(Listen audio )

__________________________

3.5 CONTEXT

Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four contexts: the EXISTENTIAL, the FUNCTIONAL, the REPRESENTATIONAL, and the AMALGAMATE, marked by a vocalic suffix VF which also conveys verbal Mood (the category of Mood will be analyzed in Section 5.1). Table 8 below shows the values for this suffix.

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]


Table 8: Word-final VF-suffix: 4 contexts x 8 moods

 
Mood (explained in Sec. 5.1)
Context↓
FAC
SUB
ASM
SPE
HYP
COU
IPL
ASC
EXISTENTIAL
a
o
ü
ei
iu
au
io
uo
FUNCTIONAL
ai
i
oi
ë
ia
ua
ie
ue
REPRESENTATIONAL
u
e
ëi
ëu
ea
oa
eo
üo
AMALGAMATE
ui
ö
ou
eu
ï
öi
öu

The four Contexts are explained below and illustrated via example Ilaksh translations of the English sentence The orchestra is playing.


3.5.1 EXS   The Existential

The EXISTENTIAL context is marked by falling tone on the formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun or verb.

For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. If the Ilaksh words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the EXISTENTIAL, then the sentence merely describes an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely conveys the nature of the spatial relationship. Listen to the following example audio :

Asekšiëéma. 
IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-EXS-FAC
‘The orchestra is playing.’  [neutral description of event]

 

3.5.2 FNC   The Functional

The FUNCTIONAL context is marked by high tone on the formative. It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.

For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the cat. Example:

Asekšiëémai
IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-FNC-FAC
‘The orchestra is playing.’  [focus on the personal meaning/importance of the event]]

 

3.5.3 RPS   The Representational

The REPRESENTATIONAL context is marked by rising tone. It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ilaksh by inflecting the words for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that Ilaksh overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from a grammatical standpoint).

* Metonymy is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’

Example:

Asekšiëému
IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-RPS-FAC
‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes that sentence is a metaphor, e.g., ‘life as a symphony’]

 

3.5.4 AMG   The Amalgamate

The AMALGAMATE context is marked by broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

Asekšiëémui
IFL-OPR-‘play music’-DEL/M/COA/CST-AGC2/7-AMG-FAC
‘The orchestra is playing.’  [connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event]

 


3.6 DESIGNATION

Designation is a somewhat subjective category, with no equivalent in Western languages. It refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two Designations are the INFORMAL and the FORMAL, shown by the vocalic affix Vc in the formative paradigm. This vocalic affix also conveys the category of Essence (explained in Section 3.7 below) as well as the verbal category of Format, explained in Section 6.5. Table 9 below shows these affixes:

((VL)
Ci
Vc
(Cx
Vp))
(Cm)
Cr
Vr
Ca
(VxC)
(VF
(Cb))
[stress]

 

Table 9: Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes


Designation

Essence

 
FORMAT
SCH
ISR
ATH
PRT
RSL
SBQ
CCM
OBJ
 
INFORMAL

NORMAL
primary form
(a)
ai
au
ia
ua
a-i
a-u
ao
2ndary form
e
ei
eu
ie
ue
e-i
e-u
eo
REPRESENTATIVE
primary form
i
ï
iu
ea
u-i
ae
2ndary form
o
oi
ou
io
uo
o-i
o-u
o-ü
 
FORMAL

NORMAL
primary form
u
ui
ü
i-u
oa
oe
öa
2ndary form
ä
äi
äu
üo
ä-i
REPRESENTATIVE
primary form
ö
öi
öu
ö-i
ö-u
ä-u
2ndary form
ë
ëi
ëu
ë-i
ë-u
äo

(NOTE: There are alternate versions of the Vc Affixes given above that are used in specific circumstances which will be discussed in Section 6.5.2 on Format.)

The two Designations are explained below.

3.6.1
FML
  The Informal

The INFORMAL designation indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.

3.6.2
IFL
  The Formal

The FORMAL designation imparts a sense of permanency and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ilaksh words would translate the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough), many stems would have different translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem ktà- with the affiliated meanings persongroup gathering crowd throng, etc. in the INFORMAL designation would change to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the FORMAL designation: official team association/congregation assembly masses, etc.

Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to INFORMALFORMAL designation are listed below:

  to grow something → to cultivate wander → travel
  obtain/get → procure/requisition lake → reservoir
  (natural) holder → container see → observe
  to create → construct/build heap → pile
  animal → domesticated animal a thought → an idea
  natural environment →“man-made” environment awareness → consciousness
  [natural] exchange → trade/commerce house → home
  assortment of animals → zoo collection grouping → set
  to group/gather → collect wall → barrier
  get some exercise → to work out placidity → peace
  problem situation → crisis to populate → to settle

As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on its associated semantic context.


3.6.3 Examples of Designation in Use

INFORMAL   FORMAL
klòl ‘flow of water; to flow’ ùklol ‘river; to flow as a river ’
dyùl ‘sensation/feeling; to sense (affective)’ ùdyul ‘sensation/feeling (volitional/deliberate); to examine via the senses’
stūl ‘comparison; to compare/contrast’ ūstul ‘measure(ment)’

 

3.7 ESSENCE

Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English sentences:

1a) The boy ran off to sea.
1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.

Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. as seen in the following:

3) You must come home at once.
4) That girl can sing better than anybody.
5) We should attack at dawn.

Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether any attack will actually occur.


3.7.1
NRM
  The Normal
 
RPV
  The Representative

The Ilaksh category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The two essences are termed NORMAL and REPRESENTATIVE, the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, Ilaksh allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from an explanatory context.

Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by the synthetic Vc vocalic prefix shown in Table 9 above (in conjunction with the categories of Designation and Format.


3.7.2 Examples of Essence in Use

Compare the following two sentences and their translations to see how placement of the REPRESENTATIVE essence on different formatives changes the meaning. Listen audio:

Ktiàl ikkalièç àxtal.
IFL/NRM-‘man’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/RPV-‘woman’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3    IFL/NRM-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The man sees what he thinks is/imagines to be a young girl.

Ktiàl akkalièç ìxtal.
IFL/NRM-‘man’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL/NRM-‘woman’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MAT2/3    IFL/RPV-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The man is imagining he sees a young girl.


Stems/Roots for above examples:

ktà- ‘man’ < kà- PERSON’           kkà- ‘woman’ < kà- PERSON’            xtà- ‘see’ < ‘VISION/SIGHT

 

3.8 NOTE ON MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL AGREEMENT

In regard to the gender categories from other languages, Ilaksh has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.). There is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives as found in most Western languages.

 

Proceed to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >>

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Home 4 Case Morphology 9 Syntax
Introduction 5 Verb Morphology 10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology 6 More Verb Morphology 11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology 7 Suffixes 12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology 8 Adjuncts The Lexicon
     

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