Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

	Home	4 Case Morphology	9 Syntax
	Introduction	5 Verb Morphology	10 Lexico-Semantics
	1 Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	11 The Writing System
	2 Morpho-Phonology	7 Suffixes	12 The Number System
	3 Basic Morphology	8 Adjuncts	The Lexicon

Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology

In this chapter, we examine eight additional morphological categories and processes which apply to verbal formatives: Modality, Valence, Validation, Bias, Function, Incorporation and Format. These categories (with the exception of Function and Format) are shown within the morpho-phonological structure of a valence adjunct (also called a modality adjunct).

The structure of a valence/modality adjunct is as follows:

Example: hoixmial-lùiss

The valence/modality adjunct appears in an Ilaksh sentence immediately before a verbal formative, or when within a case-frame, immediately after the verbal formative.

Modality corresponds roughly to the function of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., can, may, must, should, etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as to want to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that, etc. However, in Ilaksh, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification of both the Essence (see Sec. 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in Sections 3.8 and 4.3.9, it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in the following sentences.

1) You must come home at once.
2) That girl can sing better than anybody.
3) Our troops should attack at dawn.
4) Mother needs you to come with her.
5) The teacher requests that I dance for you.
6) The man believes clowns are dangerous.

Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs must, can, should, need, request, believe, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. 3.3) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. 3.7). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ilaksh modalities necessarily invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence She chose to move to Australia, the verb chose signals that the following clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the move to Australia clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but would not be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. Thus, the requirement that an Ilaksh modality construction invoke modifications in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.

There are 29 modalities in Ilaksh. (This is one less than in Ithkuil; Ithkuil's COMPULSIVE modality has been eliminated in Ilaksh, its function merged with the NECESSITATIVE.) Modality is marked by the CM consonantal affix to a valence adjunct. the CM affix is always a dissyllabic geminate consonant as earlier described in Section 1.2.1.1, in which the second member of the geminate conjunct carries the word stress and tone. This is the only circumstance in which such dissyllabic stressed consonantal geminates occur in Ilaskh; thus, it is by this means that Valence/Modality adjuncts can be easily distinguished from formatives. Because some browsers and/or text displays do not allow a consonant to carry a tone-stress diacritic mark, the tone-stress diacritic is written on the vowel following the CM affix, e.g., in-nù, a three-syllable word pronounced (using X-SAMPA) as [In."n=.u] with falling tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound. In cases where there is no vowel following the CM affix, the tone-stress diacritic is written on a neutral anaptyptic vowel -a following the CM affix which the speaker may pronounce or not at his/her choosing, e.g., in-ná, pronounced (using X-SAMPA) either as [In."n= ] or as [In."n=.a] with rising tone beginning on the stressed second n-sound.

Note that the tone of a valence adjunct is always determined by the tone of any incorporated stem associated with the adjunct (the Cd+Vd optional element in the above formula) as described in Section 6.5 below. Where the adjunct has no such incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling. The tone always appears in conjunction with the stressed syllable, the syllabic consonant as described in the above paragraph. As with all Ilaksh words, the tone of the word prior to the stressed syllable is neutral mid tone (see Section 1.3.2).

Where the value of the Cv and Vv terms of such an adjunct are null (i.e., there is no Valence or Validation values marked), then the adjunct may be termed a modality adjunct. The 29 modalities and their respective suffixes are shown in Table 15 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.

Table 15: CM Modality Affixes 

The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, etc. as in The teacher wants the students to study hard. It is marked by adding the suffix -a to a conflational or valence adjunct.

The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, etc.

The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, or I imagine he’s reached his destination.

The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating sentences such as I think she’s pretty.

The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, or I’d like you to visit your father.

The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book or Let the gates be opened!

The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all.

The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the moment, but rather his general ability to do so].

The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for dessert; or Could I talk to you?

The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest.

The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English modal verbs must or have to/had to in their meaning of compulsory obligation, as in You must get up now, or I had to attend the ceremony.

The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English modal verbs should, ought to, or other phrases expressing optional but preferential obligation, as in You ought to see a dentist, I should tell her how I feel, or It would be best if the children stayed away from clowns.

The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet.

The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as suggest that or propose that which advocate a position, as in I suggest you study harder or They proposed that the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere.

The INTENTIVE corresponds to English expressions such as intend to, plan on or shall which convey an intention, as in The girls plan on travelling to Europe, or I shall see to it.

The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as to look forward to or to eagerly await which convey positive anticipation, as in We look forward to the clowns coming to town.

The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is willing to give his life to defeat the clowns.

The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared to endure harsh weather.

The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities.

The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns.

The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women.

The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as “offer to” or “volunteer to,” indicating an act of offering as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event.

The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go number at the talent show.

The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake.

The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander enjoyed biting people on their rump.

The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team.

The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane prefers that his cats eat live food.

The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband flirts too much with the secretarial pool.

The PROMISSORY corresponds to English expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient.

6.1.30 Examples of Modality in Use

Rü  n-nwà  aktlàc  utputānukt.
ma/ACT    CRD    IFL-MNF-‘woman’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI    FML-‘travel’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI-AGC1/5-DEF1/9
She thinks the travelers are women.

Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
CSL/DPX-ua-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
The two of them like writing to each other.

El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

 

In Ilaksh, the term Valence is used to refer to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ilaksh explicitly shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate object of the verb (an old man, Sam, and her), while the second member of each pair has an inanimate object (an empty can, the window, and the wall). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below:

The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ilaksh into the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc. In Ilaksh, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively as well as co-actively.

There are fourteen valences in Ilaksh: the MONOACTIVE, PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the vocalic Vv valence prefix to a valence/modality adjunct. There are two variations for each Vv value; the choice of which of the two varations to use is dependent on the value of the Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3.

Table 16: Vv Valence Prefixes
(The two variations work in conjunction with Cv Validation prefix explained later in Section 6.3)

The fourteen valences are explained as follows:

The MONOACTIVE valence is the default valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second party is implied.

The PARALLEL valence indicates that a second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. It would be used in translating sentences such as The children all sang together, We both went jogging on the parkway.

The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. It would be used in translating sentences such as The children played in the yard (i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or The band played my favorite song (implying that not everyone in the band was playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed to playing an instrument).

The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ implies a reader and an audience.

The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved while she did something else. The way an Ilaksh sentence would utilize this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one thing while the other did something else.’

The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else is buying a new car, too).

The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what to do. Thus an Ilaksh sentence constructed as We played chess with the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

The RESISTIVE valence indicates that the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to hear it).

The IMITATIVE valence indicates that the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of the first party. The Ilaksh sentence The clown juggled three balls for the child in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the child attempted to juggle the balls as well.

The CONTINGENT valence indicates that the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ilaksh sentence I started the campfire for my friend in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked the food.

The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ilaksh sentence They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They each took part in the race.’

The INDICATIVE valence indicates that the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what I really meant from my words.’

The MUTUAL valence indicates that both parties alternate performing an activity, as in She and I take turns cleaning or They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes.

6.2.15 Examples of Valence in Use

Un-nà  uvéstra  tu  guiliënìk  ilákš.
CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    1M-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
I’m teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

In-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
The couple can’t help smiling at each other.

Iön-nà  xtàl  axmëèl  ukšŭl.
IDC    IFL-OPR-‘see’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘father’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The clown gets the meaning of father’s look.

Äđü  iň-ňmà  atác.
CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
The two of them like writing to each other.

El-lnà  alairàpt  àxmoel  gmèh.
PRL-PFT    IFL-PRC/CTX/PPS-CSS-OPR-‘eat/drink food’-PRX/A/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘mother’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘child’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/AGG
Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.

Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ilaksh. Such categories are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various non-Western languages which have them. Validation is another of the few areas where Ilaksh morphology differs from that of Ithkuil, in that Ithkuil's nine validations have been expanded to fourteen in Ilaksh. Of these 14 validations, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ilaksh evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that, etc.

The 14 validations are shown by one of seven consonantal Cv prefixes (including a null prefix, i.e., the absence of a prefix) combined with one of two variations in the Vv valence affix described above in Section 6.2.

The values for these prefixes are shown in Table 17 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.

6.3.1 Examples of Validation in Use

Yuin-nà  uvéstra  ru  guiliënìk  ilákš.
PSM-CPL    FML-OPR-‘study’-GRD/M/CSL/UNI    ma-EFF    IFL-‘illness’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC2/7-SSD1/1    IFL/RPV-‘speak’-OBL-DEL/M/COA/CST
He's presumably teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.

Hiun-nà  alpçulámz  kiàll.
PPT-RCP    IFL-STA-‘smile’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-MOT1/5    IFL-‘person’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/DPX
Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.

Äđü  hmiň-ňmà  atác.
CSL/DPX-ma-ACT    DUB-RCP-DVR    IFL-OPR-‘write message’-DEL/A/CSL/UNI
Supposedly the two of them like writing to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.

Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents a tangible/physical act, an existential or psychological state, a subjective description, a statement of identification, inherent motion-in-place, a statement of location or position in space, or a transformation from one state to another. In this manner, a given verb can manifest different interpretations without the need for relexification or paraphrase. This addresses a lexico-semantic flaw in languages such as English where new verbs sometimes arise directly from nouns but the new verbal meaning can't be predicted until the verb is used in context. For example, imagine an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick apple?, to be an apple?, to grow an apple?, to look like an apple?, to turn something into an apple? Without a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be learned from hearing others using it in context.

Through the morphological category of function, Ilaksh provides such a standardized system, i.e., eight ways by which to interpret such verbal meaning. This is very important since all formatives are capable of both nominal (noun) and verbal meanings. Thus, by means of the different functions, the stem xtà- ‘eye’ can be made to have verbal meanings as diverse as to be an eye, to be like an eye, to turn into an eye, to cause an eyeball to move (in place), to be in an eye-like state, to be positioned where the eye is situated, and to move an eye from one place to another. We will see later in Section 6.5 that these eight semantic interpretations can be infinitely expanded by means of stem incorporation and the category of Format.

Function is shown by the Cm modification of the consonantal portion of the verbal stem within the formative itself, which usually means the adding a consonantal prefix to the stem consonant; however the exact phonological manifestation of each Cm modification is dependent on the specific stem consonant or consonant cluster.

The specific Cm modifications are described below in Section 6.4.9 . The eight Functions are the OPERATIVE, STATIVE, MANIFESTIVE, INCHOATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE . They are described in the following sections.

OPERATIVE function is unmarked, i.e., there is no change to the stem consonant or consonant cluster. The OPERATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function.

The STATIVE function is usually marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant, although the specific pattern is dependent on the stem consonant itself, as shown in Table 18 below. The STATIVE indicates a stative manifestation, i.e. to be in a (temporary) state. It does NOT mean “be” in the sense of copula identification as in “I am John”

MANIFESTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant; see Table 18 below for details. The MANIFESTIVE indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” copula of identification in Western languages.

INCHOATIVE function is marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster; see Table 18 below for specifics. The INCHOATIVE indicates that the verb refers to a transformation from one state to another or (trans-)formation of an identity.

DESCRIPTIVE function is marked by a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The DESCRIPTIVE indicates descriptive manifestation, i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest Ilaksh equivalent to English adjectives.

ACTIVE function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -l- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The ACTIVE indicates action or motion in situ, i.e., action performed in place or movement in place (as in shaking, spinning, wagging, wiggling, jumping up and down, etc.).

POSITIONAL function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -r- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The POSITIONAL indicates that the verb refers to a position or location, i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space.

TRANSLATIVE function is generally marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster (see Table 18 below for specifics) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in Section 6.5.2 for details). The TRANSLATIVE indicates that the verb indicates a change in position or location is taking place, i.e. to move or be moved from one location/position in space to another.

6.4.9 Values of the Cm Function Affixes/Modifications and Alternation of the Vc Affix

The specific values for the stem-consonant modifications associated with Function are shown in Table 18 below. There are several different patterns of Cm prefixes and/or modification of the Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Note that the OPERATIVE function is shown by a zero-form, i.e., it is unmarked, the Function being shown simply by the presence of the default Cr stem consonant or consonant cluster. Also note that the last four of the Functions (the DESCRIPTIVE, ACTIVE, POSITIONAL and TRANSLATIVE) are shown using the same prefix forms as the first four, with the addition of a modification of the value of the verb's Vc Affix to its secondary Form (see Sections 3.6 and 6.5.2 below).

Tables 18(a)-(f): Function Prefixes for Each Cr Stem Consonant or Consonant Cluster
*Asterisked Functions are indicated by addition of alternation of Vc affix to secondary form (see Sec. 6.5.2)

(a) Standard pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and Homologous Nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element, illustrated below by Cr elements p, t, and kt.

(b) Pattern: ( )-, l-, r-, and homologous nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (Cr) element but with deletion of the initial stem consonant p- or k- following the nasal prefix due to assimilation with the nasal. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pt, pk, ptl, ptr, ptř, pŧ, pŧl, pŧr, kŧ, kŧl, kŧr, ps, pš, ks, kš, psr, pšr, ksr, kšr, psl, pšl, ksl, kšl, pst, pšt, kst, kšt, psk pšk, ksp, kšp, bz, bž, gz, gž, bzg, bžg, gzb, gžb,gzd, and gžd. Four of these elements are illustrated below:

c) Pattern: -(), -l, -r, and -w are added as suffixes to the Cr element. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg, ff, ŧŧ, xx, vv, đđ, ss, šš, zz, žž, mm, ňň, žž, bg, and gd. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

d) Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a geminated consonant within the Cr element is simplified to a non-geminate when taking the -l, -r, and nasal prefixes. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: ppy, tty, kky, bby, ddy, ggy, ffy, ŧŧy, xxy, vvy, and đđy. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

e) Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a -w suffix is substituted for the nasal prefix in the INCHOATIVE and TRANSLATIVE functions. This pattern applies to the following Cr elements only: m, n, ň, c, č, ż, j, ck, čk, gż, jg, cp, čp, ct, čt, vm, vn, đm, đn, pf, bv, dv,and gv. Two of these elements are illustrated below:

f) The following Cr elements are individual in their patterning for each Function:

All remaining Cr elements not referenced in the tables above follow the standard pattern (a).

6.4.10 Examples of Function

Here follow examples of the eight functions applied to the same stem urà ‘prepare(d) food’:

OPR	OPERATIVE	urà   ‘prepare(d)/cook(ed) food’
STA	STATIVE	ulrà   ‘to be in a state of preparing/cooking food’
MNF	MANIFESTIVE	uhhà    ‘to be prepared/cooked food’
ICH	INCHOATIVE	uřsà   ‘to become/turn into prepared/cooked food’
DSP	DESCRIPTIVE	ärà    ‘to be like prepared/cooked food’
ATV	ACTIVE	älrà   ‘prepared/cooked food moving around’ [e.g., in the pan or on the plate]
PSN	POSITIONAL	ähhà    ‘to be situated at or placed with the prepared/cooked food’
TNV	TRANSLATIVE	äřsà   ‘to move the prepared/cooked food’[e.g., from one place to another]

Additional examples of Function:

Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöl.
IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
His wife’s clothes are inside-out.

Epsiolřūl  aktäàl.
IFL-PST/ITR/PPS-TMP-ATV-‘circular motion’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-‘man’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.

Yoaňšŭl  gmèint.
DEC-FML/RSL-ICH-‘clown’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     IFL-‘child’-ABS-DEL/U/CSL/DPX
The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!

Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

Ervrekf īfš  nrūoilüb  zmayüūlavz.
IFL-PSN-‘pathway’-PRX/N/CSL/UNI-DCS1/1    IFL-‘oblique verticality’-FUN-EXN1/6     IFL-‘valley’-NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO2/5
The path winds steeply through the canyon.

 

Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings into a single verb, a process termed conflation. This is illustrated in the following English sentences:

1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a doll.
3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the books on the shelf/shelves.
4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the bar).

The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our four sentences above as follows:

He [1: (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle]
= He bicycled south.

She [1: (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll]
= She dolled herself up.

They [1: (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
= They’re shelving the books.

[1: (GIVE+imperative)] a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
= Slide me a beer.

Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of one’s shoulder.

Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form.

Ilaksh systemizes verb conflation into a productive scheme, in which the primary verb can convey any of eight overt senses, called formats, which in turn combine with any secondary verbal stem to convey the covert sense. The secondary verbal stem is incorporated directly into a valence/modality adjunct as an affix immediately preceding the CM modality element and following the Vv valence affix if present. This incorporated stem is labeled as morphological terms Cd and Vd, that is, the Stem Consonant + Stem vowel of the incorporated stem. As for the tone of the incorporated stem, it becomes the tone for the entire adjunct, to be pronounced as usual beginning with the stressed syllable, i.e., the CM syllabic consonant. (NOTE: For those valence/modality adjuncts which do not contain a Cd + Vd incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling tone.)

In addition to the tone of the incorporated stem's tone, we know from Chapter 2 that each Consonant+Vowel root in Ilaksh falls into one of three Patterns (Pattern 1 being the three holistic stems, and Patterns 2 and 3 being the six complementary stems). While the three Patterns can be shown by mutation of the Cd consonant, a way must be found to indicate which of three stems per pattern is intended, as well as the Designation of the stem (i.e., FORMAL versus INFORMAL). This is accomplished by mutating the Vd vowel element, as shown in Table 19 below.

6.5.1 Examples of Stem Incorporation

Here are some examples of incorporation using the stems xtā- ‘run’, zdā- ‘keep in holding area; contain’, ammyû- ‘sleep’, úse- ‘sing a song’, açrà- ‘ingest/consume’, and admù- ‘cry’ :

Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
Father went off clam-hunting.

Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

Axmièl  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Father is crying because of the song.

Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Mother makes father cry by singing.

 

6.5.2 Format

As described above, the primary stem of a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ilaksh, this sense is overtly identified by the format of the verb. Format is shown as part of the Vc prefix which also shows the categories of Designation and Essence (see Sections 3.6 and 3.7).

Table 20 below shows the values of Vc. We have previously seen (in Secs. 3.6, and 3.7) that each of the Vc affixes has a secondary form (used in conjunction with four of the eight verbal Functions, as explained in Sec. 6.4.9 above). However, in addition to these secondary forms, all Vc affixes also have an alternate form used to indicate the presence of a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix. These alternate forms are necessary in order to disambiguate which consonants in a complex formative belong to the formative stem from those belonging to affixes. By providing an alternate form, the reader of a complex Ilaksh formative can know that the syllable following the Vc affix is, in fact, a Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and not the Cr+Vr formative stem.

Tables 20(a) and (b): Vc Affixes:  Designation/Essence/Format Affixes

The alternate versions of these affixes, used to indicate the presence of Cx+Vp Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infixes, are given below:

6.5.3 Examples of Format in Use

These are the same examples from Section 6.5.1 above on Incorporation, now highlighting the different formats used:

Akkoàl  xtam-mā  zlul.
IFL-‘woman’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-DES    IFL/SCH-OPR-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The woman wants to run like a gazelle.

Akkoàl  xtan-nwā  o-uzlul.
IFL -‘woman’-DEF1/8    ‘run’-IFL-CRD     IFL/RPV/CCM-DSP-‘gazelle’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.

Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
Father went off clam-hunting.

Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üúsel  gmìel.
IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

Çräm-mlà  i-uzgăt ukšüŭl  bler.
‘consume/ingest’-IFL-OBG    FML/PRT-OPR-‘buy’-DEL/U/CSL/UNI    FML-‘clown’-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘clam’-OBL-DEL/M/CSL/DCT
The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.

Axmiè  seun-ná  a-ildmùl.
IFL-father-AFF     ‘sing a song’-FML     IFL/SBQ-STA-‘cry’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Father is crying because of the song.

Àxmäula  axmièl  dmün-nà  úisel.
IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    IFL-father-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI     ‘cry’-IFL    FML/ISR-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Mother makes father cry by singing.

Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a translation change as well.

6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

Bias is shown in any one of two ways:

1. If a valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to to the adjunct, e.g., illûi’ss
   
2. If no valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the VF mood/context suffix, e.g., uprexalo’ss

(NOTE: We will also see in Section 8.1.2 that a Cb Bias affix may be associated with a Form 3 single-referent personal reference adjunct.)

These Cb affix forms are shown in Table 21 below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

Table 21: Morpho-Phonological Markers for Bias

6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use

Ūalkresk  zìhh  ùdvüöla’nn.
IFL/RSL-STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI    ‘article of clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG    FML-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FAC-ASU+
You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!

Uxakloskò’ňň.
FRM-PRC/FRG/PPS-OPR-‘rain’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-SUB-COI
It may just so happen to be raining.

Wain-nyàx  u’rleuvaskăr  kü.
INF-MNO-CPC-CRR    FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-CNT-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA11/5     2m-ACT
What I mean to say is that I don't think you'll be able to work any longer.

Xasskügà’pss  akkiàl.
IFL-OPR-‘eyesight’-PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLC1/6-FAC-SGS+    IFL-‘woman’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Let's assume for the sake of argument that the woman’s eyesight is improving.

The category of Aspect was introduced and discussed in Section 5.6, where it was described that Aspect is normally presented as the Vp infix to a formative, placed immediately following the Cx Phase/Sanction/Version affix. As an alternative, however, Aspect may be conveyed by suffixing Vp infix to a valence/modality adjunct immediately following the CM modality affix.

Examples:

Axmëèl  zdan-nūa  aoblelt.
IFL-father-IND-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘contain’-MTV     IFL/OBJ-OPR-‘clam’-DEL/U/CSL/DCT
Father went off clam-hunting.

Àxmäula  mmyün-nï î  üsél  gmìel.
IFL-mother-EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI    ‘sleep’-IFL-HAB    FML/ATH-OPR-‘sing a song’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI   ‘child’-AFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
Mother used to sing the child to sleep.

Wain-nyeu  u’rlavastăr  ktòal.
INF-MNO-CPC-CNT     FML-PRC/CTX/IPU-OPR-‘job/employment task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA11/5     IFL-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI
It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.

Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >>

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	3 Basic Morphology	8 Adjuncts	The Lexicon

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